Cognitive Biases of Memory

Misattribution of memory is a cognitive bias in which a person correctly remembers information but incorrectly remembers the source of that information.

Source confusion is a memory error in which a person remembers information correctly but becomes confused about which specific source it came from.

Cryptomnesia is a memory bias in which a person believes an idea is original, while in reality it was encountered before and unconsciously remembered.

False memory is a distortion in which a person remembers events or details that never actually happened, or remembers them in a significantly altered form.

Suggestibility is a memory distortion in which a person’s recall is influenced or altered by external suggestions, questions, or information received after an event.

The spacing effect is a learning and memory phenomenon in which information is remembered better when study sessions are spaced over time, rather than concentrated in a single session.

Implicit association refers to automatic, unconscious connections formed between concepts, attributes, or groups in a person’s mind.

Implicit stereotype is an unconscious belief about the traits, abilities, or behaviors of a group of people.

Stereotypical bias is a systematic tendency to judge, interpret, or make decisions about individuals based on stereotypes, rather than on individual evidence.

Prejudice is a pre-formed judgment or attitude toward a person or group, typically based on group membership rather than individual evidence.

Negativity bias is a cognitive bias in which negative events, emotions, or information have a stronger impact on a person’s thoughts, feelings, and decisions than positive or neutral ones.

Fading affect bias is a cognitive bias in which the emotional intensity of negative memories fades faster over time than the emotional intensity of positive memories.

The peak–end rule is a cognitive bias in which people judge an experience largely based on its most intense moment (the peak) and its final moments, rather than the total duration or average of the experience.

Leveling and sharpening is a memory distortion process in which people simplify memories by removing details (leveling) while exaggerating or emphasizing certain elements (sharpening).

The misinformation effect is a memory distortion in which a person’s recollection of an event becomes altered after exposure to misleading or incorrect information.

The serial recall effect is a memory phenomenon in which people tend to remember items at the beginning and end of a sequence better than those in the middle.

The list length effect is a memory phenomenon in which recall accuracy decreases as the number of items in a list increases.

Duration neglect is a cognitive bias in which people judge an experience largely without considering how long it lasted.

The modality effect is a memory phenomenon in which information is remembered better when presented in an auditory form compared to visual-only presentation, especially for the most recent items.

Memory inhibition is a cognitive process in which certain memories are actively suppressed or become less accessible to prevent interference with other information.

The primacy effect is a memory phenomenon in which items presented at the beginning of a sequence are remembered better than those in the middle.

The recency effect is a memory phenomenon in which items presented most recently are remembered better than earlier ones.

The part-set cuing effect is a memory phenomenon in which providing some items from a set impairs recall of the remaining items.

The serial-position effect is a memory phenomenon in which recall accuracy varies by an item’s position in a sequence.

The suffix effect is a memory phenomenon in which recall of the final items in an auditory list is reduced when an irrelevant sound is added at the end.

The levels of processing model is a theory of memory stating that information is remembered better when it is processed deeply rather than superficially.

Absent-mindedness is a memory failure caused by lack of attention during encoding or retrieval of information.

The testing effect is a learning phenomenon in which retrieving information through testing improves long-term retention more than additional study.

The next-in-line effect is a memory phenomenon in which people have difficulty recalling what was said just before their turn to speak.

The Google effect is a cognitive bias in which people are less likely to remember information if they know it can be easily accessed online.

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is a memory state in which a person is unable to retrieve a word or name despite feeling that retrieval is imminent.